A Toolkit for Volunteer Leaders
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Inservice Training V-7

Before starting this module, review the module on orientation (V-5).

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After finishing this module you should be able to:

1. Describe three basic training approaches.
2. Design a training program.

APPROACHES TO TRAINING

Training is often approached within the unique context of service industries. Hence, highly successful training programs are commonly found within the context of clerical, vocational, teacher, medical, and a host of professional and technical areas. Individuals who plan and deliver training consider the level of expertise or competency of the employees to be trained. Kenney (1972) discusses office training for selling, craft training, technician training, technologist training, and management training. DePhillips (1960) links training to various kinds of learning such as sensory-motor, conceptual, attitudinal, and associational learning. Wight and Hammons (1970) discuss the traditional as well as the experienced-based approach while Elam (1971) distinguishes between experience-based and performance-based training.

From these approaches to training, a typology can be constructed that is relevant to nonformal educational settings. These are traditional training, experiential training, and performance-based training. An understanding of each approach will enable extension workers and farmers to choose the best approach.

Traditional Approach to Training

DePhillips (1960) and Kenney (1972) describe a traditional training model wherein the focus is on intervention by the training staff. Figure 1 illustrates the traditional model of training. In this model, the training staff determines the objectives, content, techniques, assignments, how learners will be motivated, and how they will be evaluated. Individuals who use this model often find that learners assume passive roles. This model creates a setting which resembles a formal classroom. Most of the training is instructor-oriented. The instructor decides what learners need to know, selects the content or the subject matter areas, writes the lesson plans, and then serves as the chief purveyor of the information. The instructor is clearly the focus in the traditional model of training because this person is to perform while the learners are to listen, observe, and perhaps imitate the instructor's behaviors.

Figure 1. Traditional Model of Training

According to Rao and Hanumanthappa (1985), traditional methods of imparting knowledge, efforts to change attitudes, and structured courses that are supposedly guaranteed to solve problems, do not always bring about the desired behavioral change in trainees. Further, these authors suggest that experiential training which (1) uses adequate methods of training, (2) includes feedback systems, and (3) adapts experimental concepts to learning can be effective in bringing about desirable behavioral changes in trainees. An examination of the experiential training approach merits further discussion.

Experiential Approach to Training

Experiential training incorporates experiences wherein the learner becomes active and influences the training process. As opposed to the academic approach inherent in the traditional model, experiential training emphasizes immersion into real or simulated situations in which the trainee is eventually to operate. In this model, objectives are determined collectively by trainers and trainees who (1) identify problems and resources, (2) explore and evaluate alternative solutions to problems, and (3) reflect on and conceptualize the total experience. Trainers are responsible for structuring a training process in which trainees can internalize skills, knowledge and attitudes for use after the training program is terminated. Figure 2 presents a schematic conceptualization of the experiential training model.

In experiential training, the trainer serves primarily as a facilitator, catalyst, and resource person. This individual (1) provides the rules and structure, (2) helps trainees develop the skills and understanding to perform effectively, and (3) works with all trainees to help them continuously improve their performance. The trainer emphasizes cooperation and teamwork so that all team members can assist in the development of each individual. Such a collegial and supportive approach enhances teamwork.

Experiential Learning Model

...Step 1

Performance-based Approach to Training

In the third approach to training, performance-based goals are specified. The trainee is accountable not for achieving passing grades, but for attaining a given level of proficiency. Emphasis is placed on a specific skill that is observable while the trainee performs essential tasks. This approach to training is task- or skill-centered and stresses practical skills and knowledge that can be used in work or community settings.

The performance-based teacher education (PBTE) model developed by Elam (1971) is also applicable to nonformal educational organizations. The implied characteristics of this model include individualization, feedback, systematic programming, and learner and program accountability. In addition, some related and desirable characteristics of the model include its field setting, broad base for decision making and training materials, learner participation in decision making, and research orientation. Elam's model employs methods which are relatively flexible and allow learners to progress at their own rate with many alternatives and options.

The model emphasizes specific skill training as well as attention to knowledge and attitudes of trainees. In addition, the model provides for congruence between objectives and evidence used for evaluative purposes. The PBTE model enables participants to be active learners whose viewpoints are important in shaping the educational activity. To be used effectively, PBTE's research orientation must be adapted to field situations. In addition, special attention will be required to orient the training toward the use of scarce local resources, a problem in many areas of the world. Consideration should be given to having participants bear some of the costs of the training. Not only will this policy help overcome training costs, it will also help make the training (1) oriented to local conditions and (2) responsive to learners' needs.

In designing an educational solution for a particular situation, components from various training approaches might be used. Elements of the experiential as well as performance-based approach that are appropriate to the training needs of extension personnel and farmers should be used. The traditional training approach should be used sparingly and carefully.

SOME CONSIDERATIONS FOR TRAINING FARMERS IN OTHER COUNTRIES
(or other special groups)

Farmers are more interested in agricultural production and improving the quality of their lives. Training for farmers, however, should take account of their particular needs. Below are some considerations for trainers who are developing a training program for farmers.

Matching the literacy level of farmers

Current literature indicates that a majority of farmers worldwide do not have a basic minimum education. Therefore all training provided for this special group must be carefully matched to their literacy levels. Appropriate media and methods should be selected. Clear and simple explanations should be given. Visits to demonstration plots, tours, demonstrations, and discussions are just a few of the variety of methods that will help farmers to see the value of the training and to apply it to their own needs.

Matching the demographics of farmers

Demographic factors such as age, ownership of land, education, previous participation in similar programs, previous contacts, wealth, and availability of resources are associated with the adoption of improved practices. An understanding of these factors helps improve the effectiveness of training for farmers.

Matching social and cultural expectations

Bowen and Carey (1990) indicate that training conducted without appropriate consideration of the social and cultural aspects tends to have limited long term effectiveness. Therefore, trainers must consider social and cultural factors such as the village, friends, community, farm organization, work group, family, cooperatives, and religion.

Another issue is the timing of the training. If the training is not scheduled at a time when the trainees can comfortably participate, it may fail. If the trainees are not "ready" for the subject matter of the training, they may reject it. Readiness of the learner is required for all types of education.

EXERCISES:

1. Remember a training session in which you were a participant. How was it organized? What did you like about the session(s)? What changes could have been made to improve the training? Redesign the training using the ideas from this module so the training is more effective and you would be more comfortable.

2. Choose a group that you want to train. Plan the training using the ideas from this module. You should also look at the module on workshops (TL-1) and perhaps some of the other modules on teaching/learning techniques (they all have "TL" before the number).